Intralipid Emulsion Therapy for the Treatment of Suspected Toxicity in 2 Avian Species.

Intravenous lipid emulsion (ILE) therapy has shown promise as a treatment option for a variety of lipophilic toxins. Two birds presented for suspected ingestion of a toxic substance. A blue-and-gold macaw (Ara ararauna) presented after chewing a block of bromethalin rodenticide without overt clinical signs at the time of presentation. Additionally, a free-ranging bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was found weak and depressed near a municipal landfill after presumptive ingestion of pentobarbital. Both birds were treated with ILE therapy for potential intoxication without any adverse events. The macaw was clinically normal after 3 days of hospitalization and at a 1-week reevaluation. The eagle was transferred to a rehabilitation center after markedly improved mentation and strength and was released 7 days later. Clinicians should consider ILE therapy for the treatment of lipophilic toxicities; however, monitoring is recommended for persistent lipemia and other adverse effects that have been reported in the veterinary literature.

Assessment of Cholinesterase inhibition activity of birds inhabiting pesticide exposed croplands and protected area in hot semi-arid region of Pakistan / Avaliação da atividade de inibição da colinesterase de pássaros que habitam áreas cultivadas e áreas protegidas expostas a pesticidas na região semiárida quente do Paquistão

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity levels can be used as an indicator for AChE inhibition due to pesticide poisoning in bird species. We assessed the comparative brain cholinesterase (AChE) activity level of five bird species inhabiting pesticide exposed croplands and Protected Area i.e. Deva Vatala National Park (DVNP), Bhimber by using a spectrophotometric method. AChE activity levels ranged from 56.3 to 85.9 µmol/min/g of brain tissue of birds representing DVNP. However, AChE activity levels ranged from 27.6 to 79.9 µmol/min/g of brain tissue of birds representing croplands. AChE activity levels observed in Jungle babbler, Common babbler, and Red-vented bulbul showed significant differences (P 0.05). Maximum inhibition was recorded in Jungle babbler (53%) followed by Common babbler (35%), Red-vented bulbul (18%), White wagtail (15%), and Black drongo (7%). The brain cholinesterase inhibition levels under-protected ecosystems (DVNP, Bhimber) and agricultural landscape suggest insecticidal contamination and its impact on avifauna diversity. The study also emphasizes on the importance of pesticide-free zones to protect the biodiversity of birds.

Os níveis de atividade da acetilcolinesterase (AChE) podem ser usados como um indicador para a inibição da AChE devido ao envenenamento por pesticidas em espécies de aves. Avaliamos o nível de atividade comparativa da colinesterase cerebral (AChE) de cinco espécies de aves que habitam áreas cultivadas expostas a pesticidas e Área Protegida, ou seja, Deva Vatala National Park (DVNP), Bhimber, usando um método espectrofotométrico. Os níveis de atividade da AChE variaram de 56,3 a 85,9 µmol / min / g de tecido cerebral de aves representando DVNP. No entanto, os níveis de atividade da AChE variaram de 27,6 a 79,9 µmol / min / g de tecido cerebral de aves representando áreas de cultivo. Os níveis de atividade de AChE observados no tagarela da selva, tagarela comum e bulbul vermelho exalado mostraram diferenças significativas (P 0,05). A inibição máxima foi registrada no tagarela da selva (53%), seguido pelo tagarela comum (35%), bulbul vermelho (18%), alvéola branca (15%) e drongo preto (7%). Os níveis de inibição da colinesterase cerebral nos ecossistemas subprotegidos (DVNP, Bhimber) e na paisagem agrícola sugerem contaminação por inseticida e seu impacto na diversidade da avifauna. O estudo também enfatiza a importância das zonas livres de pesticidas para proteger a biodiversidade das aves.

Acute tea tree oil intoxication in a pet cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus): a case report.

BACKGROUND: Phytotherapy is becoming a more and more common practice, not only for personal care but also for pet care. Nevertheless, we often have to deal with substances on which, in most cases, very little literature is available, even more so if the species of interest are the exotic ones. In particular, the essential oil from the Melaleuca leaves, because of its antinflammatory and antibacterial properties, is widely used and very little is known about its potential toxicity on pet birds. The present paper describes the first case of Tea tree oil intoxication in a pet bird. CASE PRESENTATION: A one-year-old, 80 g male cockatiel (Nymphicus hollandicus) was presented for clinical examination due to a serious despondency episode after the application of 3 drops of tea tree oil (Melaleuca alternifoglia) directly on the cutis of its right wing. The subject was urgently hospitalized and blood tests were performed.Serum biochemical values showed severe liver damage and slight renal involvement, complete blood count (CBC) parameters indicated a moderate neutrophilia a moderate neutropenia. Warm subcutaneous fluids and vitamin (VIT) B12 were administered, and after 8 h of fluid therapy the clinical condition of the patient improved. The subject was discharged after 48 h of hospitalization, in stable conditions. CONCLUSIONS: Toxicosis are relatively common in bird pets and a number of cases are reported in literature, concerning heavy metals intoxications and toxic plants ingestion. However, in literature there are no described cases regarding Melaleuca oil intoxication in pet birds, but it has been reported in humans (mainly by ingestion) as well as in dogs, cats and rats. We hope that this first case report can be an initial aid in the knowledge of this potential toxicosis and therefore in the clinical veterinary practice of pet birds.

Experimental model of oral transmissible AA amyloidosis in quails.

In poultry and zoo birds, mass outbreaks of amyloid A (AA) amyloidosis are often reported, and horizontal transmission is considered as one of the causes. However, oral transmission of avian AA amyloidosis in nature has been unclear. In order to clarify the horizontal transmission of avian AA amyloidosis, basic research using an appropriate oral transmission model is necessary. In this study, we developed an oral transmission model of AA amyloidosis using quails, and assessed the oral transmission efficiency of AA amyloidosis in quails and mice. Young quails, adult quails, and young mice received inflammatory stimulation with lipopolysaccharide; simultaneously, homogeneous amyloid fibrils were orally or intravenously administered. By histological examination, induction of amyloidosis by oral or intravenous administration of amyloid was confirmed in all species. Furthermore, both quail and murine AA amyloidosis were orally transmitted in a dose-dependent manner. These results support the possibility of horizontal transmission of avian AA amyloidosis in nature. This model will be able to contribute to the elucidation of spontaneous horizontal transmission of avian AA amyloidosis in the future. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS Quail AA amyloidosis was orally transmitted in a dose-dependent manner. Oral transmission was less efficient than intravenous transmission. In-cage horizontal transmission did not occur during 4-week cohabitation. Amyloid deposition in tissues of quail was grossly visible.

SUSPECTED HYPOVITAMINOSIS A-ASSOCIATED SALT GLAND ADENITIS IN NORTHERN ROCKHOPPER PENGUINS ( EUDYPTES MOSELEYI).

Supraorbital salt-excreting glands are present in at least 10 avian orders and are largest in marine species, including penguins. Diseases of the avian salt gland have been described infrequently. From September 2015, five captive northern rockhopper penguins ( Eudyptes moseleyi) were presented over a 6-wk period for unilateral or bilateral supraorbital swellings. In September 2016, two cases recurred and two additional cases were identified. Histopathology demonstrated salt gland adenitis with extensive squamous metaplasia. Blood plasma testing demonstrated marked vitamin A and E deficiencies within the colony. Prolonged frozen storage of feed-fish was implicated as a cause of vitamin depletion; reducing storage times and addition of dietary supplementation prevented recurrence.

The Use of Lead Isotope Analysis to Identify Potential Sources of Lead Toxicosis in a Juvenile Bald Eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) With Ventricular Foreign Bodies.

A male juvenile bald eagle ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was admitted to the Wildlife Center of Virginia with a left humeral fracture a large quantity of anthropogenic debris in the ventriculus, a blood lead level of 0.616 ppm, and clinical signs consistent with chronic lead toxicosis. Because of the poor prognosis for recovery and release, the eagle was euthanatized. Lead isotope analysis was performed to identify potential anthropogenic sources of lead in this bird. The lead isotope ratios in the eagle's femur (0.8773), liver (0.8761), and kidneys (0.8686) were most closely related to lead paint (0.8925), leaded gasoline (0.8450), and zinc smelting (0.8240). The lead isotope ratios were dissimilar to lead ammunition (0.8179) and the anthropogenic debris in the ventriculus. This case report documents foreign body ingestion in a free-ranging bald eagle and demonstrates the clinical utility of lead isotope analysis to potentially identify or exclude anthropogenic sources of lead poisoning in wildlife patients.

Diagnosis and management of inflammatory bowel disease in a harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) with suspected fenbendazole toxicosis.

CASE DESCRIPTION A 14-year-old 4.1-kg (9.02-lb) male harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) was evaluated because of vomiting, anorexia, lethargy, and weight loss (decrease of 0.35 kg [0.77 lb]) of 4 weeks' duration. The bird had previously been treated orally with fenbendazole after the initial onset of clinical signs. CLINICAL FINDINGS An initial CBC revealed marked heteropenia and anemia, but whole-body contrast-enhanced CT images and other diagnostic test findings were unremarkable. Clinical signs persisted, and additional diagnostic testing failed to reveal the cause. During celiotomy, a biopsy specimen of the duodenum was obtained for histologic examination, which revealed lymphoplasmacytic inflammation, consistent with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). TREATMENT AND OUTCOME Prior to histopathologic diagnosis of IBD, barium sulfate administered via gavage resulted in a temporary improvement of clinical signs. Following diagnosis of IBD, corticosteroid administration was initiated in conjunction with antifungal prophylaxis. Cessation of vomiting and a return to normal appetite occurred within 3 days. Fifteen months after cessation of corticosteroid treatment, the eagle continued to do well. CLINICAL RELEVANCE To our knowledge, this was the first report of diagnosis and management of IBD in an avian species. For the eagle of the present report, results of several diagnostic tests increased clinical suspicion of IBD, but histologic examination of an intestinal biopsy specimen was required for definitive diagnosis. Although successful in this case, steroid administration in avian species must be carefully considered. Conclusive evidence of fenbendazole toxicosis was not obtained, although it was highly suspected in this bird.

Second-generation Anticoagulant Rodenticide Poisoning in a Captive Andean Condor (Vultur gryphus).

A 28-year-old female Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) housed in an outside exhibit at the National Aviary in Pittsburgh, PA, began showing signs of weakness. Toxicosis with an anticoagulant rodenticide was suspected because its mate had died 1 day earlier from possible brodifacoum poisoning. A rapid decline in the packed cell volume, despite vitamin K1 treatment, necessitated a blood transfusion with blood from bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and Steller's sea eagles (Haliaeetus pelagicus). Supportive therapy after transfusion included vitamin K1 (5 mg/kg IM q12h) as well as enrofloxacin, vitamin B complex, selenium and vitamin E, and subcutaneous fluids as needed. After a 39-day treatment period, a tapering dosage of vitamin K1 was initiated, and treatment ended after 17 weeks. However, 2 weeks later, the bird suffered from a potential relapse. It was successfully treated with a repeat tapering vitamin K1 regimen lasting a total of 4 months.

Spontaneous, Experimentally Induced, and Transmissible AA Amyloidosis in Japanese Quail ( Coturnix japonica).

The authors describe a spontaneous case of amyloid A (AA) amyloidosis in an adult female Japanese quail ( Coturnix japonica). The bird developed AA amyloidosis secondary to chronic peritonitis caused by a Gram-negative bacillus infection. Mild amyloid deposition was also identified in the intestinal tract of apparently healthy adult individuals, suggesting that quail may develop intestinal amyloidosis with age. Based on these observations, it was hypothesized that quail can develop AA amyloidosis following inflammatory stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Therefore, adult quail were repeatedly injected with LPS and the development of AA amyloidosis was confirmed. The amyloid deposition in this model increased when quail amyloid was intravenously injected as an amyloid-enhancing factor. The experiments were repeated with young quail, but amyloid deposits were not observed following LPS injections. However, AA amyloidosis did develop when quail amyloid was injected in addition to LPS. These results indicated that adult quail develop AA amyloidosis after inflammatory stimulation with LPS. Furthermore, quail AA amyloidosis was shown to have transmissibility regardless of age. Interestingly, the authors found that administration of chicken amyloid fibrils also induced AA amyloidosis in young quail. This is the first report of cross-species transmission of avian AA amyloidosis.

Evaluation of High Dosages of Oral Meloxicam in American Kestrels ( Falco sparverius ).

To evaluate the toxicity of short-term high doses of meloxicam in American kestrels ( Falco sparverius ), 32 male captive-born, 1- to 4-year-old American kestrels were randomly assigned to 4 groups: 3 groups treated with meloxicam (n = 9 per group) and a control group (n = 5). Meloxicam was administered orally via feeding tube in the proventriculus at 2, 10, and 20 mg/kg every 12 hours for 7 days for the treatment groups, while the control group received saline solution. The birds were evaluated for the presence of clinical signs, abnormalities in the complete blood cell count and in the plasma biochemical panel for the 20-mg/kg group, and gross and histopathologic lesions. No clinical signs or mortality were observed in any group. No significant differences of clinical relevance were found in results of the packed cell volume, total solids, and biochemical panel, and no evidence of renal toxicity was found in the treatment or control groups. A significant correlation was found between hepatic lipidosis and meloxicam dose (P = .02). Two of 9 birds in the 20-mg/kg group developed gastric ulcers, although this result was not significant. None of the birds in the 2- and 10-mg/kg groups had similar lesions. Finally, meloxicam dosages up to 20 mg/kg did not result in nephrotoxicity in American kestrels. Further toxicologic studies to evaluate hepatotoxicity and gastrotoxicity of meloxicam in avian species are needed.

Acute, Fatal, Presumptive Xylitol Toxicosis in Cape Sugarbirds ( Promerops cafer).

Twenty-nine wild Cape sugarbirds ( Promerops cafer) died acutely after ingestion of a homemade xylitol nectar solution from a bird feeder. The most aggressive feeders were first affected. Most birds showed clinical signs within 15 minutes of nectar ingestion, including incoordination, weakness, falling from perches, collapse, and death. A few birds showing clinical signs seemed to spontaneously recover and fly away. Full necropsy examinations done on 27 birds were hampered by freezing artifact and autolysis, but results indicated death was caused by the consequences of acute hypoglycemia. A presumptive diagnosis of xylitol toxicity was made based on the history, clinical signs, and absence of other obvious causes of death. This is potentially the first record of xylitol toxicity in wild birds.

Lead Poisoning Due to Lead-Pellet Ingestion in Griffon Vultures ( Gyps fulvus ) From the Iberian Peninsula.

Avian scavengers that typically include game birds and mammals in their diets are at risk of lead poisoning from ingestion of carcasses with fragmented or residual lead ammunition that is used in hunting. Thus, lead may be one of the threats that the griffon vulture ( Gyps fulvus ) faces in the Iberian Peninsula and particularly in Portugal, where their conservation status is considered to be near-threatened. This is the first report that details 3 cases of lead poisoning, associated with the ingestion of lead shot, in adult female griffon vultures found in the Iberian Peninsula. The birds were found prostrate and immediately transferred to a wildlife rehabilitation center, where they died within 24 hours after supportive treatment. Necropsy and histopathologic examinations were done in 2 birds and metal analyses were done in all birds to determine the birds' causes of death. In one vulture, 9 uneroded lead pellets were recovered from the stomach, and moderate to severe hemosiderosis was seen histologically in the liver, lungs, and kidneys. Diagnosis of lead poisoning was confirmed by results of metal analyses, which revealed extremely high lead concentrations in blood (969-1384 µg/dL), liver (309-1077 µg/g dry weight), and kidneys (36-100 µg/g dry weight) for all 3 vultures. To prevent lead poisoning in vultures and preserve their populations in the Iberian Peninsula, more resources are needed for diagnosis and treatment of wildlife in rehabilitation centers, new regulations enabling the abandonment of fallen stock in the field must be approved, and lead ammunition must be prohibited in big-game hunting.

Evaluation of environmental genotoxicity by comet assay in Columba livia.

The concentrations of recognized or suspected genotoxic and carcinogenic agents found in the air of large cities and, in particular, developing countries, have raised concerns about the potential for chronic health effects in the populations exposed to them. The biomonitoring of environmental genotoxicity requires the selection of representative organisms as "sentinels," as well as the development of suitable and sensitive assays, such as those aimed at assessing DNA damage. The aim of this study was to evaluate DNA damage levels in erythrocytes from Columba livia living in the metropolitan area of Monterrey, Mexico, compared with control animals via comet assay, and to confirm the results via Micronuclei test (MN) and DNA breakage detection-fluorescence in situ hybridization (DBD-FISH). Our results showed a significant increase in DNA migration in animals from the area assayed compared with that observed in control animals sampled in non-contaminated areas. These results were confirmed by MN test and DBD-FISH. In conclusion, these observations confirm that the examination of erythrocytes from Columba livia via alkaline comet assay provides a sensitive and reliable end point for the detection of environmental genotoxicants.

Effects of Meloxicam on Hematologic and Plasma Biochemical Analyte Values and Results of Histologic Examination of Kidney Biopsy Specimens of African Grey Parrots (Psittacus erithacus).

In this study we evaluated the effects of meloxicam administered at 0.5 mg/kg IM q12h for 14 days on hematologic and plasma biochemical values and on kidney tissue in 11 healthy African grey parrots (Psittacus erithacus). Before treatment with meloxicam, blood samples were collected and renal biopsy samples were obtained from the cranial portion of the left kidney from each of the birds. On day 14 of treatment, a second blood sample and biopsy from the middle portion of the left kidney were obtained from each bird. All birds remained clinically normal throughout the study period. No significant differences were found between hematologic and plasma biochemical values before and after 14 days of treatment with meloxicam, except for a slight increase in median beta globulin and corresponding total globulin concentrations, and a slight decrease in median phosphorus concentration. Renal lesions were absent in 9 of 10 representative posttreatment biopsy samples. On the basis of these results, meloxicam administered at the dosage used in this study protocol does not appear to cause renal disease in African grey parrots.

Lead Toxicosis in a Southern Ground Hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri in South Africa.

The southern ground hornbill (Bucorvus leadbeateri) has been classified as globally vulnerable and, in South Africa, regionally endangered, with a negative population trend. Factors contributing to the population decline in South Africa are poisoning, electrocution, and illegal capture for trade, coupled with slow reproductive rates and extensive habitat requirements. Lead toxicosis is a previously undescribed threat for the population. An adult southern ground hornbill presented with acute lead toxicosis due to lead particles in the gizzard, which required intensive treatment. Two other hornbills were likely exposed. The source of the lead in these cases was likely a carcass of a porcupine that was killed with lead shot. This report highlights the importance of the use of lead-free ammunition within the habitat of the southern ground hornbill in South Africa.

Suspected cholecalciferol rodenticide toxicosis in avian species at a zoological institution.

Over a 2-month period, individual birds belonging to species in multiple avian families, including Bucerotidae, Sturnidae, Columbidae, Corvidae, and Anatidae, were presented to the Animal Care Center at the Phoenix Zoo for emergency medical care. Common clinical findings were subdued behavior, weight loss, and an inability to fly. Biochemical abnormalities commonly included high calcium and uric acid concentrations and high to high-normal phosphorus concentrations. In cases in which necropsies were done, mineralization of organs often was present, frequently of the kidneys and cardiovascular system. Because of the high calcium and phosphorus concentrations, mineralization of tissues, cases representing multiple avian species, and the recent addition of rodent bait boxes containing cholecalciferol to the zoo's pest control program, a presumptive diagnosis of cholecalciferol toxicosis was made. Treatment most commonly consisted of daily fluid diuresis. These cases demonstrate that, although cholecalciferol is considered unlikely to cause relay toxicosis, primary toxicosis still should be considered in cases with sudden onset of nonspecific signs when exposure to cholecalciferol was possible.

Ingluviotomy tube placement for lead-induced crop stasis in the California condor (Gymnogyps californianus).

Six free-flying California condors (Gymnogyps californianus) were diagnosed with acute lead toxicosis that caused crop distension and stasis. Between January 2006 and January 2007, the birds were referred to the Phoenix Zoo in Arizona for emergency treatment. In 5 birds, an ingluviotomy was performed to place a feeding tube from the crop to the proventriculus, which allowed a temporary bypass of the dysfunctional esophagus until normal function and motility were regained. A crop-support pressure bandage was placed in 4 birds to improve crop emptying into the proventriculus and to prevent crop distension. Although chelation therapy is the gold standard treatment for lead toxicosis, severe cases of lead-induced crop stasis are not acutely reversible with pharmaceuticals. In these condors, placement of a feeding tube was deemed prudent to ensure a viable enteric route of nutritional support during the standard treatment and recovery period in acute lead toxicosis with crop stasis.

Necrotic dermatitis in waterfowl associated with consumption of perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne).

Mute swans (Cygnus olor), whooper swans (Cygnus cygnus), and mixed-breed domestic geese (Anser anser domesticus) were presented for necrotic lesions on the feet, eyelids, and beak. Individuals from the same collection of birds had developed identical lesions during March-September of each of the previous 3 years. Vesicular and necrotic dermatitis involved only nonfeathered and nonpigmented areas of the integument. No abnormal clinical signs were seen on either carnivorous species or birds with pigmented skin from the same collection. The enclosure that housed the birds had been planted with perennial rye grass (Lolium perenne) 3 years previously. Based on the pathologic features and anatomic location of the lesions, the seasonal occurrence, the vegetation history of the enclosure, and the feeding behavior of the affected species, vesicular dermatitis resulting from photosensitization was the presumptive diagnosis. All affected birds recovered completely after the birds were removed from the enclosure, and no further clinical signs have been reported.

Clinicopathologic, gross necropsy, and histologic findings after intramuscular injection of carprofen in a pigeon (Columba livia) model.

To evaluate the pathologic effects of carprofen in a pigeon model (Columba livia), 52 young adult pigeons were used in a randomized control study design. Sixteen pigeons were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment groups and received carprofen by intramuscular injection at dosages of either 2, 5, or 10 mg/kg once daily for 7 days. Four pigeons served as saline-injected controls. Four pigeons from each group and 1 control pigeon were randomly selected on days 2, 4, 6, and 8 to obtain blood samples and then were euthanatized and submitted for necropsy. Histologic lesions in pectoral muscle, liver, kidney, and digestive tract tissue samples were ranked in severity as 0, normal/not present; 1, minimal; 2, mild; 3, mild to moderate; 4, moderate; 5, moderate to marked; and 6, marked pathologic changes. Two-way analysis of variance (day x dose) and pairwise t tests revealed significant (P < or = .05) mild decreases in total protein and glucose concentrations and marked increases in aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase enzyme activities after carprofen treatments. Gross lesions in carprofen-treated pigeons were pale injection sites (23/48 [47.9%]), mottled yellow livers (9/48 [18.8%]), and congestion of small intestines (7/48 [14.6%]). Liver, kidney, and muscle injection sites had significantly increased (P < or = .05) severity of histologic lesions. In pigeons, intramuscular administration of carprofen is associated with increased aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase enzyme concentrations, gross lesions in muscle injection sites and liver, and histologic lesions in liver and muscle.